Chapter 2 Methods of Enquiry in Psychology

Introduction

Psychology, as the scientific study of experiences, behaviours, and mental processes, relies on formal and systematic methods to investigate its questions. It is the methodology of enquiry that distinguishes psychology as a science. Because human behaviour is incredibly diverse and complex, no single research method is sufficient. Therefore, psychologists employ a variety of methods to explore different psychological phenomena.

This chapter will introduce you to the core principles of psychological enquiry. We will explore the primary goals of research, the different types of data psychologists collect, and the key methods used to gather this information, including observation, experimentation, correlational research, surveys, psychological testing, and case studies. Finally, we will address the inherent limitations of psychological enquiry and the critical ethical considerations that every researcher must follow.

Goals of Psychological Enquiry

Like any scientific discipline, psychological enquiry has a set of core goals that guide the research process. These goals are aimed at building a systematic and objective understanding of behaviour and mental processes.

1. Description: The first goal is to accurately and comprehensively describe a behaviour or phenomenon. This involves careful observation and recording of details to distinguish one behaviour from another. For example, a researcher studying the "study habits" of students must first describe what specific actions (like making a schedule, revising daily, etc.) constitute this behaviour.
2. Prediction: Once a behaviour is accurately described, the next goal is to predict its occurrence. By understanding the relationship between a particular behaviour and other events, researchers can forecast when that behaviour is likely to happen. For example, if research establishes a positive relationship between study time and academic achievement, one can predict that a student who studies more is likely to achieve good marks.
3. Explanation: This goal focuses on identifying the causes or determinants of behaviour. Psychologists seek to answer the "why" question—what factors lead to a particular behaviour occurring? This involves establishing a cause-and-effect relationship between variables. For example, what makes some children more attentive in class than others?
4. Control: Understanding the cause of a behaviour allows for the possibility of controlling it. Control in psychology means being able to make a particular behaviour happen, reduce its occurrence, or enhance it by manipulating its antecedent conditions. For example, a therapist helps a client control anxiety by teaching them new coping mechanisms.
5. Application: The ultimate goal of psychological research is to apply the knowledge gained to improve the quality of people's lives. Research is conducted to solve real-world problems in various settings. For example, applying knowledge of yoga and meditation can help individuals reduce stress and improve their well-being.

Steps in Conducting Scientific Research

Scientific research is characterized by its objective, systematic, and testable approach. Objectivity means that different researchers studying the same event should arrive at similar conclusions. This is achieved by following a systematic procedure.

1. Conceptualising a Problem: The research process begins with selecting a topic of interest. The researcher then narrows down this broad topic into a specific research question. Based on past research and observations, the researcher formulates a tentative and testable answer to this question, which is called a hypothesis. For example, a hypothesis might be: "Greater exposure to televised violence leads to a higher degree of aggression in children."
2. Collecting Data: The second step involves creating a research design or blueprint for the study. This includes making decisions about:
   • Participants: Who will be studied? (e.g., children, adolescents, patients).
   • Methods: Which data collection method will be used? (e.g., observation, experiment).
   • Tools: Which specific tools will be used? (e.g., questionnaire, interview schedule).
   • Procedure: How will the tools be administered? (e.g., individually or in a group).
   This is followed by the actual collection of data.
3. Drawing Conclusions: The collected data is then analyzed using statistical methods (e.g., calculating percentages, means, or using graphical representations like bar diagrams) to see if it supports the hypothesis.
4. Revising Research Conclusions: If the data supports the hypothesis, the original theory is confirmed. If not, the researcher must revise the hypothesis or formulate a new one, which can then be tested in future research. This makes research a continuous, cyclical process.

Alternative Paradigms of Research

For much of its history, psychology has followed the scientific model, aiming to study behaviour objectively, as something predictable and caused by measurable forces. This approach, however, often overlooks the richness of personal feelings, experiences, and subjective meanings.

In recent years, an alternative approach known as the interpretive paradigm has gained prominence. This paradigm argues that human behaviour is complex and variable, and therefore cannot be studied with the same methods used for the physical world. It emphasizes understanding over prediction and explanation. The goal is to explore how individuals interpret and give meaning to events within their specific context. This approach is particularly useful for studying unique human experiences like suffering or joy, where objective measurement is not possible or desirable.

Nature of Psychological Data

Psychological data, or information, is collected from diverse sources and relates to individuals' behaviour, subjective experiences, and mental processes. It's important to understand that data is not an independent entity; its nature is shaped by the context in which it is collected, the method used, and the theory guiding the research.

In psychology, the following types of data are commonly collected:

1. Demographic Information: Personal data like name, age, gender, education, occupation, and family income.
2. Physical Information: Information about the physical environment, such as ecological conditions, housing conditions, and mode of transportation.
3. Physiological Data: Biological data collected using scientific instruments, such as height, weight, heart rate, blood pressure, and brain activity (EEG).
4. Psychological Information: Data related to psychological attributes like intelligence, personality, interests, values, emotions, and subjective experiences.

This information can be collected in various forms, including categories (yes/no), ranks (1st, 2nd, 3rd), scores on a scale, or descriptive forms like verbal reports and field notes, which are analyzed using qualitative methods.

Some Important Methods in Psychology

Psychologists use a variety of methods to collect data, each suited for different research purposes. The main methods are:

• Observational Method
• Experimental Method
• Correlational Research
• Survey Research
• Psychological Testing
• Case Study

Observational Method

Observation is a powerful method for describing behaviour as it naturally occurs. Scientific observation is different from day-to-day observation because it is systematic and objective. It involves:

• Selection: The researcher selects a specific behaviour to observe.
• Recording: The behaviour is recorded systematically using tools like tallies, notes, photographs, or video recordings.
- Analysis: The recorded data is analyzed to derive meaning.

Types of Observation

Advantages: Allows for the study of behaviour in its natural context.

Disadvantages: It can be time-consuming, and the researcher's presence might influence the behaviour of those being observed. It is also susceptible to observer's bias, where the observer's personal beliefs influence their interpretation of the events.

Experimental Method

The experimental method is used to establish a cause-and-effect relationship between two variables in a controlled setting. The researcher manipulates one variable to observe its effect on another.

The Concept of Variable

• Independent Variable (IV): The variable that is manipulated or changed by the researcher. It is the presumed "cause".
• Dependent Variable (DV): The variable that is measured to see the effect of the manipulation. It is the presumed "effect".
- Extraneous Variables: Other variables that could potentially influence the dependent variable. In an experiment, these must be controlled to isolate the effect of the independent variable.

Experimental and Control Groups

• Experimental Group: The group whose members are exposed to the manipulation of the independent variable.
• Control Group: A comparison group that is treated exactly like the experimental group in every way, except that it is not exposed to the independent variable.

By comparing the dependent variable between the two groups, the researcher can determine the effect of the independent variable. Participants are assigned to groups randomly to eliminate systematic differences.

Advantages: Provides strong evidence of a cause-and-effect relationship.

Disadvantages: The controlled laboratory setting can be artificial and may not generalize to real-world situations (low external validity). It is also not always feasible or ethical to conduct experiments on certain topics.

Field Experiments and Quasi Experiments

• Field experiments are conducted in natural settings (like a school or office) rather than a lab, which increases generalizability but reduces control over extraneous variables.
• Quasi-experiments are used when it is impossible to manipulate the independent variable (e.g., studying the effect of an earthquake). Here, the researcher selects naturally occurring groups (e.g., children who lost parents vs. those who did not) to serve as the experimental and control groups.

Correlational Research

Correlational research is used to determine the relationship or association between two variables. Unlike experiments, it does not involve manipulation; it simply measures the two variables and determines if they covary.

The strength and direction of the relationship are measured by a statistical number called the correlation coefficient, which ranges from +1.0 to –1.0.

• Positive Correlation (e.g., +0.85): As one variable increases, the other also increases (e.g., study time and achievement score).
• Negative Correlation (e.g., -0.70): As one variable increases, the other decreases (e.g., study time and hours spent on other activities).
- Zero Correlation (close to 0): There is no significant relationship between the variables.

Important Note: Correlation only indicates an association; it does not prove causation.

Survey Research

Survey research is used to study opinions, attitudes, and social facts by asking a series of questions to a group of people. The main techniques used are:

Personal Interviews

A face-to-face interaction where an interviewer asks questions to a respondent. Interviews can be:

• Structured: The questions are pre-determined and asked in a fixed order (like a verbal questionnaire).
- Unstructured: The interviewer has the flexibility to change the questions and their sequence based on the respondent's answers.

Questionnaire Survey

A set of pre-determined questions is given to respondents, who write down their answers. This method is low-cost and can be administered to large groups simultaneously. However, response rates can be low, especially for mailed questionnaires.

Telephone Survey

Surveys are conducted over the telephone. This method is quick but may suffer from uncooperativeness and superficial answers, as there is no face-to-face rapport.

Advantages: Surveys can gather information from thousands of people quickly and efficiently.

Disadvantages: People may give inaccurate information due to memory lapses or social desirability (giving answers they think the researcher wants to hear).

Psychological Testing

Psychological tests are standardized and objective instruments used to assess an individual's standing on various mental or behavioural characteristics (like intelligence, personality, or aptitude) in relation to others. For a test to be useful, it must have:

• Objectivity: The test should yield the same results regardless of who administers or scores it.
• Reliability: The test must produce consistent scores over time (test-retest reliability) and across its items (split-half reliability).
• Validity: The test must actually measure what it claims to measure.
- Norms: The test must have established standards of performance for a large, representative group, which allows for the comparison and interpretation of an individual's score.

Types of Tests

Tests can be classified based on language (verbal, non-verbal), mode of administration (individual, group), and the aspect being measured (speed vs. power).

Case Study

A case study is an in-depth, intensive investigation of a particular case. The "case" can be an individual, a small group, an institution, or a specific event. This method is particularly useful for studying rare or unique phenomena to gain critical new insights.

Case studies employ multiple methods of data collection, such as interviews, observation, and psychological tests, to gather detailed information. While they provide rich, narrative descriptions, the main challenge is the difficulty of generalizing the findings from a single, unique case to a larger population.

Analysis of Data

After data collection, the information must be analyzed to draw conclusions. There are two main approaches to data analysis:

Quantitative Method

This method is used for data that can be converted into numbers or scores, such as data from psychological tests, questionnaires with scaled responses, and structured interviews. Statistical procedures like calculating the mean, standard deviation, and correlation coefficients are used to analyze the data and make inferences.

Qualitative Method

This method is used for descriptive data that cannot be easily converted into scores, such as data from participant observation, unstructured interviews, or open-ended questions. The researcher analyzes this data using techniques like narrative analysis or content analysis to identify themes, build categories, and understand the subjective experiences of the participants.

Both methods are complementary and are often used together to provide a more complete understanding of a phenomenon.

Limitations of Psychological Enquiry

Psychological research faces some inherent limitations:

1. Lack of a True Zero Point: Unlike in physical sciences, psychological measurements (like intelligence or anxiety) do not have an absolute zero point. No one has zero intelligence. This means that psychological scores are relative, not absolute, which makes interpretation complex.
2. Relative Nature of Psychological Tools: Psychological tests are developed within specific cultural contexts. A test developed for urban students in a Western country may not be valid for tribal children in India. Tools must be adapted to be culturally appropriate.
3. Subjective Interpretation of Qualitative Data: The analysis of qualitative data relies heavily on the researcher's interpretation, which can be subjective. To improve objectivity, it is often recommended that multiple investigators analyze the data and discuss their findings to reach a consensus.

Ethical Issues

Since psychology deals with human beings, researchers must adhere to strict ethical guidelines to protect the rights and well-being of their participants.

1. Voluntary Participation: Participants must have the freedom to choose whether to participate in a study and can withdraw at any time without penalty.
2. Informed Consent: Participants must be given complete information about the nature of the study before it begins so they can make an informed decision about participating.
3. Debriefing: After the study is over, participants must be provided with information to complete their understanding of the research, especially if deception was used. The researcher must address any negative effects the study may have had.
4. Sharing the Results: Researchers have a moral duty to share the findings of the study with the participants who helped generate them.
- Confidentiality of Data Source: The privacy of participants must be protected. All information they provide must be kept confidential and used only for research purposes. Their identities should be kept anonymous.